Among the four styles of swimming (breast stroke, free style, butterfly style, and style of the back), the most difficult way is bernafasnya free style. In breast and butterfly style, breathing can be done easily because of the time in which we are entirely above the water surface. Breathe in the style of the back is also not difficult because of the head and body with our free draw to the sky. As in the free style, we may not be the full swell of the surface water. This is made to breathe in the free style feels more difficult.
However, if it is normal, there will be no more difficult things. Take (breathe) in the breath free style we do since the 2 / 3 of our stroke, and we end at our hands back into the water. We take samples of breath to take the left side. At the time of stroke left hand in line with our chest, lift akan relief style on the left side of our bodies. As a result, the body will be facing sloping to the left side. At the time that we start taking a breath. And the slope of our body by itself will help us face to swell over the surface of the water easily and naturally.
At the time of your face back down into the water, with a relaxed atmosphere out of your nose. This will cause a bubble-bubble water out of your nose.
Then when we take a breath? For such long-distance swimming 1500 meters, some great swimmer like Grant Hackett taking a breath every second stroke once. This means that only one only one stroke, and therefore also bernafasnya only to one side only: to the left or to the right course.
But there were also some swimmer who takes a breather every three stroke once. This means that the breath will be made to alternate left and right. Ways such as breathing, known as bilateral breathing. And where better to take the breath to one side only, or take a breath to the side in turn two? The answer, like-like you. Do you think that more rileks, relaxed, comfortable and suitable for you. So, most importantly, feel comfortable when you breathe.
However, many free-style sprint swimmer (50 meters or 100 meters), which make extraordinary efforts to hold their breath during the race. They only take a breath when truly in need. This is done so that the speed reduction does not occur that usually occurs when a free-style swimmer are breath taking.
SURFING
Surfing is the act of riding down a breaking wave, gathering speed from the downward and forward movement. Most commonly, the term is used for a surface water sport in which the person surfing moves along the face of a breaking ocean wave (the "surf"). However, surfing is not restricted to saltwater, but can sometimes take place on rivers, using a standing wave. This Event was created in the 1700's where European travelers in Tahiti used planks of wood. The main use of the word "surfing" is for riding waves using a board on which the surfer stands. This is sometimes called "stand-up surfing", to distinguish it from bodyboarding, in which the individual riding the wave only partly raises his upper body from the board surface, and from bodysurfing, where no board at all is used. Two major subdivisions within contemporary stand-up surfing are longboarding and 
shortboarding, reflecting differences in surfboard design and riding style. In tow-in surfing (most often, but not exclusively, associated with big wave surfing), a surfer is towed into the wave by a motorized water vehicle, such as a jetski, generally because standard paddling is often ineffective when trying to match a large wave's higher speed. Depending on wave size, direction, and on wind conditions, sailboats can also surf on larger waves on open sailing waters. Unlike "surfers", sailors usually do not surf in beach waves, and they usually do not go out in order to surf; instead, the wave and wind conditions may allow them to boat surf during a sailing trip. More recently, the same principle of craft-based surfing has been increasingly used by kayakers, notably in the sport of playboating, which is mostly carried out on rivers 
(see playspot). Surfing-related sports such as paddleboarding and sea kayaking do not require waves, and other derivative sports such as kitesurfing and windsurfing rely primarily on wind for power, yet all of these tools may also be used to ride waves. Recently with the use of V-drive boats, wakesurfing has grown. Wakesurfing is surfing behind a boat, riding the wave or wake which is created by the boat.
DIVING
Most diving competitions consist of three disciplines: 1m and 3m springboards, and the platform. Competitive athletes are divided by gender, and often by age group. In platform events, competitors are allowed to perform their dives on either the five, seven and a half (generally just called seven) or ten meter towers. In major diving meets, including the Olympic Games and the World Championships, platform diving is from the 10 meter height.Divers have to perform a set number of dives according to established requirements, including somersaults and twists. Divers are judged on whether and how well they completed all aspects of the dive, the conformance of their body to the requirements of the dive, and the amount of splash created by their entry to the water. A possible score out of ten is broken down into three points for the takeoff, three for the flight, and three for the entry, with one more available to give the judges flexibility.
The raw score is multiplied by a difficulty factor, derived from the number and combination of movements attempted. The diver with the highest total score after a sequence of dives is declared the winner.
Synchronized diving
Synchronized diving was adopted as an Olympic sport in 2000. Two divers form a team and perform dives simultaneously. The dives are usually identical; however, sometimes the dives may be opposites, in what is called a pinwheel. In these events, the diving is judged both on the quality of execution and the synchronicity - in timing of take-off and entry, height and forward travel.
Scoring the dive
There are rules governing the scoring of a dive. Usually a score considers three elements of the dive: the approach, the flight, and the entry. The primary factors affecting the scoring are:
1. the platform selected (10 meter, 7.5 meter, or 5 meter)
2. if a hand-stand is required, the length of time and quality of the hold
3. the height of the diver at the apex of the dive, with extra height resulting in a higher score
4. the distance of the diver from the diving apparatus throughout the dive (a diver must not be dangerously close, should not be too far away, but should ideally be within 2 feet (0.61 m) of the platform)
5. the properly defined body position of the diver according to the dive being performed, including pointed toes and feet touching at all times
6. the proper amounts of rotation and revolution upon completion of the dive and entry into the water
7. angle of entry - a diver should enter the water straight, without any angle. Many judges award divers for the amount of splash created by the diver on entry, with less splash resulting in a higher score.
To reduce the subjectivity of scoring in major meets, panels of five or seven judges are assembled. If five judges then the highest and lowest scores are discarded and the middle three are summed and multiplied by the DD (Degree of Difficulty—determined from a combination of the moves undertaken, in which position and from what height). In major international events, there are seven judges in which case the highest and lowest scores are again discarded and the middle five are summed, then ratioed by 3/5, and multiplied by the DD, so as to provide consistent comparison with 5-judge events. Accordingly, it is extremely difficult for one judge to manipulate scores.
There is a general misconception about scoring and judging. In serious meets, the absolute score is somewhat meaningless. It is the relative score, not the absolute score that wins meets. Accordingly, good judging implies consistent scoring across the dives. Specifically, if a judge consistently gives low scores for all divers, or consistently gives high scores for the same divers, the judging will yield fair relative results and will cause divers to place in the correct order. However, absolute scores have significance to the individual divers. Besides the obvious instances of setting records, absolute scores are also used for rankings and qualifications for higher level meets.
In synchronised diving events, there is a panel of seven or nine judges; two to mark the execution of one diver, two to mark the execution of the other, and three or five to judge the synchronisation.
Competitive strategy
To win dive meets, divers create a dive list in advance of the meet. To win the meet the diver must accumulate more points than other divers. Often, simple dives with low DDs will look good to spectators but will not win meets. The competitive diver will attempt the highest DD dives possible with which they can achieve consistent, high scores. If divers are scoring 8 or 9 on most dives, it may be a sign of their extreme skill, or it may be a sign that their dive list is not competitive, and they may lose the meet to a diver with higher DDs and lower scores.
In competition, divers must submit their lists beforehand, and once past a deadline (usually when the event is announced or shortly before it begins) they cannot change their dives. If they fail to perform the dive announced, even if they physically cannot execute the dive announced or if they perform a more difficult dive, they will receive a score of zero. Under exceptional circumstances, a redive may be granted, but these are exceedingly rare (usually for very young divers just learning how to compete, or if some event outside the diver's control has caused them to be unable to perform).
In the Olympics or other highly competitive meets, many divers will have nearly the same list of dives as their competitors. The importance for divers competing at this level is not so much the DD, but how they arrange their list. Once the more difficult rounds of dives begin it is important to lead off with a confident dive to build momentum. They also tend to put a very confident dive in front of a very difficult dive to ensure that they will have a good mentality for the difficult dive. Most divers have pre-dive and post-dive rituals that help them either maintain or regain focus. Coaches also play a role in this aspect of the sport. Many divers rely on their coaches to help keep their composure during the meet. In a large meet coaches are rarely allowed on the deck to talk to their athlete so it is common to see coaches using hand gestures to communicate.
There are some American meets which will allow changes of the position of the dive even after the dive has been announced immediately before execution, but these are an exception to the rules generally observed internationally.
Generally, NCAA rules allow for dives to be changed while the diver is on the board, but the diver must request the change directly after the dive is announced. This applies especially in cases where the wrong dive is announced. If the diver pauses during his or her hurdle to ask for a change of dive, it will be declared a balk and the change of dive will not be permitted.
Under FINA law, no dive may be changed after the deadline for the dive-sheet to be submitted (generally a period ranging from one hour to 24 hours, depending on the rulings made by the event organiser.
It is the diver's responsibility to ensure that the dive-sheet is filled in correctly, and also to correct the referee or announcer before the dive if they describe it incorrectly. If a dive is performed which is as submitted but not as (incorrectly) announced, it is declared failed and scores zero according to a strict reading of the FINA law. But in practice, a re-dive would usually be granted in these circumstances.
Diving and other sports
Divers do not consider themselves swimmers. While each sport shares a pool, and may compete side by side when doing so for their schools, the two sports are very different. Swimming is a full body exercise with emphasis on speed, whereas diving is a full body exercise with emphasis on technical acrobatic execution; swimmers most frequently suffer overuse injuries, whereas divers most frequently suffer impact injuries or strains.
The sister sport of diving is gymnastics. Many divers begin their training as gymnasts, and switch sports. Two of the most common are that they simply prefer diving, or that they develop a chronic injury that makes continuing gymnastics impossible. Gymnastics provides young divers with skills that help them perform complex and risky dives, but there are downsides; some habits developed in gymnastics can interfere with the correct technique of diving. Twisting is the major habit that is different in diving and gymnastics. Gymnasts are commonly taught to twist with the arms crossed on the chest while divers are taught to wrap the arms at head level. Another difficulty for a gymnast entering the world of diving is learning to land on the hands.
ICE HOCKEY
Ice hockey is played on a large flat area of ice, using a three inch (76.2 mm) diameter vulcanized rubber disc called a puck. This puck is often frozen before high-level games to decrease the amount of bouncing and friction on the ice. The game is contested between two teams of skaters. The game is played all over North America, Europe and in many other countries around the world to varying extent. It is the most popular sport in Canada, Finland, Latvia, the Czech Republic, and in Slovakia.
The governing body is the 66-member International Ice Hockey Federation, (IIHF). Men's ice hockey has been played at the Winter Olympics since 1924, and was in the 1920 Summer Olympics. Women's ice hockey was added to the Winter Olympics in 1998. North America's National Hockey League (NHL) is the strongest professional ice hockey league, drawing top ice hockey players from around the globe. The NHL rules are slightly different from those used in Olympic ice hockey: the periods are 20 minutes long, counting downwards. There are three periods.
Ice hockey sticks are long L-shaped sticks made of wood, graphite, or composites with a blade at the bottom that can lie flat on the playing surface when the stick is held upright and can curve either way, legally, as to help a left- or right-handed player gain an advantage.
There are early representations and reports of ice hockey-type games being played on ice in the Netherlands, and reports from Canada from the beginning of the nineteenth century, but the modern game was initially organized by students at McGill University, Montreal in 1875 who, by two years later, codified the first set of ice hockey rules and organized the first teams.
Ice hockey is played at a number of levels, by all ages.
SOFTBALL
History
First photo of a Softball team, Chicago, 1897
Indoor baseball player, 1907
The first version of softball was invented in Chicago, Illinois on Thanksgiving Day, 1887 by George Hancock as a winter version of baseball. It was intended to be a way for baseball players to keep in practice during the winter. At the time, the sport was called "Indoor Baseball".[2]
Yale and Harvard alumni had gathered at the Farragut Boat Club in Chicago to hear the score of the annual football game. When the score was announced and bets were paid, a Yale alumnus threw a boxing glove at a Harvard supporter. The other person grabbed a stick and swung at it. Hancock called "Play ball!" and the game began. Hancock took a boxing glove and tied it into a ball. A broom handle was used as a bat.[3] The first softball game ended with a score of 44-40.[4] The ball, being soft, was fielded barehanded rather than with gloves like those which had been introduced to baseball in 1882. Hancock developed a ball and an undersized bat in the next week. The Farragut Club soon set rules for the game, which spread quickly to outsiders. The game, under the name of "Indoor-Outdoor", was moved outside next year, and the first rules were published in 1889.[2]
In 1895 Lewis Rober, Sr. of Minneapolis organized outdoor games as exercise for firefighters; this game was known as kitten ball (after the first team to play it), pumpkin ball, or diamond ball.[3] Rober's version of the game used a ball 12 inches (305 mm) in circumference, rather than the 16-inch (406 mm) ball used by the Farragut club, and eventually the Minneapolis ball prevailed, although the dimensions of the Minneapolis diamond were passed over in favor of the dimensions of the Chicago one. Rober may not have been familiar with the Farragut Club rules. The first softball league outside the United States was organized in Toronto in 1897.
The name "softball" dates back to 1926. The name was coined by Walter Hakanson of the YMCA at a meeting of the National Recreation Congress.[5] (In addition to "indoor baseball", "kitten ball", and "diamond ball", names for the game included "mush ball", "pumpkin ball,"[3] and "cabbage ball".) The name softball had spread across the United States by 1930. By the 1930s, similar sports with different rules and names were being played all over the United States and Canada. The formation of the Joint Rules Committee on Softball in 1934 standardized the rules and naming throughout the United States.
Sixteen-inch softball, also sometimes referred to as "mush ball" or "super-slow pitch", is a direct descendant of Hancock's original game. Defensive players are not allowed to wear fielding gloves; however, a 16-inch softball is actually soft, and can be fielded safely with bare hands. Sixteen-inch softball is played extensively in Chicago and New Orleans. In New Orleans, sixteen-inch softball is called "Cabbage Ball" and is a popular team sport in area elementary and high schools.
By the 1940s, fast pitching began to dominate the game. Although slow pitch was present at the 1933 World's Fair, the main course of action taken was to lengthen the pitching distance. Slow pitch achieved formal recognition in 1953 when it was added to the program of the Amateur Softball Association, and within a decade had surpassed fast pitch in popularity.
Softball was introduced to the United Kingdom in 1972 when the movie A Touch of Class was being filmed in London.The first British women's softball league was established in 1983.
In 1977, the American Professional Slow Pitch League (APSPL) became the first of three men's professional softball leagues to play between 1977 and 1982. The Detroit Caesars were the first team to win a professional softball World Series.
In 1991, women's fast-pitch softball was selected to debut at the 1996 Summer Olympics.The 1996 Olympics also marked a key era in the introduction of technology in softball; the IOC funded a landmark biomechanical study on pitching during the games.
In 2002, sixteen-inch slow pitch was written out of the ISF official rules, although it is still played extensively in the United States under Amateur Softball Association of America, or ASA rules.
The 117th meeting of the International Olympic Committee, held in Singapore in July 2005, voted to drop softball and baseball as Olympic sports for the 2012 Summer Olympic Games
The field
Diagram of a softball diamond.
Picture of a softball field
The playing field is divided into fair territory and foul territory. Fair territory is further divided into the infield, and the outfield, and the territory beyond the outfield fence.
The field is defined by foul lines that meet at a right angle at home plate. The minimum length of the baselines varies classification of play (see below for official measurements). A fence running between the baselines defines the limits of the field; this fence is equidistant from home plate at all points.
Behind home plate is a backstop. It must be between 25 and 30 feet (7.62 and 9.14 meters) behind home plate depending on the type of division that is playing.
Home Plate is one corner of a diamond with bases at each corner. The bases other than home plate are 15 in (38 cm) square, of canvas or a similar material, and not more than 5 in (13 cm) thick. The bases are usually securely fastened to the ground. The bases are numbered counter clockwise as first base, second base, and third base. Often, but not always, outside first base (that is, in foul territory) and adjacent and connected to it there is a contrast-colored "double base" or "safety base". It is intended to prevent collisions between the first baseman and the runner. The runner runs for the foul portion of the double base after hitting the ball while the fielding team tries to throw the ball to the regular first base before the runner reaches the safety base. However, not all softball diamonds have these safety bases and they are much more common in women's softball than in men's. The double base is required in ISF championships.
The infield consists of the diamond and the adjacent space in which the infielders (see below) normally play. The outfield is the remaining space between the baselines and between the outfield fence and the infield. The infield is usually "skinned" (dirt), while the outfield has grass in regulation competitions.
Near the center of the diamond is the pitching plate. In fast pitch, a skinned circle 16 feet (4.88 meters) in diameter known as the pitching circle is around the pitching plate.
A field is officially supposed to have a warning track between 15 and 12 feet (5 and 4 meters) from the outfield fence. However, if the game is being played on a field larger than required, no warning track is required before the temporary outfield fencing.
Located in foul territory outside both baselines are two Coach's Boxes. Each box is behind a line 15 feet (5 meters) long located 12 feet (3 meters) from each baseline.
Equipment
Equipment required in softball includes a ball, a bat, gloves, uniforms and protective gear, including helmets for the offensive team and a helmet, shin guards, and chest protector for the defensive catcher.
Ball
Despite the sport's name, softballs are not especially soft. The size of the ball varies according to the classification of play; the permitted circumferences in international play are 12±0.125 in (30.5±0.3 cm), weight between 6.25 oz (178 g) and 7.0 oz (198.4 g) in fast pitch; 11±0.125 in (29.7±0.3 cm), weight between 5.875 oz (166.5 g) and 6.125 oz (173.6 g) in slow pitch. A 12-inch circumference ball is generally used in slow pitch. Some balls have a raised seam, and others do not. The ball is most often covered in white or yellow leather in two pieces roughly the shape of a figure-8 and sewn together with red thread, although other coverings are permitted. The core of the ball may be made of long fiber kapok, or a mixture of cork and rubber, or a polyurethane mixture, or another approved material.
In 2002, high-visibility yellow "optic" covering, long-used for restricted flight balls in co-ed recreational leagues, became standard for competitive play. Yellow is the color of official NCAA and NAIA softballs. Yellow softballs are fast becoming the standard for all levels of play for girls' and women's play in particular. White balls are also allowed, but are much more common in slow pitch than in fast pitch.
In Chicago, where softball was invented, it remains traditional to play with a ball 16 inches in circumference. This larger ball is generally softer (sometimes called a mush ball). When using a 16-inch ball, the fielders do not wear gloves or mitts. A 16-inch ball is also used for wheelchair softball.
Bat
The bat used by the batter is made of metal, wood or composite materials (carbon fiber, etc.). Sizes may vary. In fast pitch softball, wooden bats are not allowed.
Gloves
All defensive players wear fielding gloves, made of leather or similar material. Gloves have webbing between the thumb and forefinger, known as the "pocket". The first baseman and the catcher may wear mitts; mitts are distinguished from gloves in that they have extra padding, and no fingers. In 2007, ASA and other organizations revised their rules regarding gloves and mitts, allowing any player to use a glove or mitt. No part of the glove is allowed to be the same color as that of the ball, including that of its seams. Gloves used in softball are generally larger than the ones used in baseball.
Uniform
Each team wears distinctive uniforms. The uniform includes a cap, visor, a shirt, an undershirt, tight sliding undershorts, socks, and shorts or pants; these are the components for which standards are set.
Caps must be alike and are mandatory for male players (this is not true anymore)[citation needed]. Caps, visors, and headbands are optional for female players, and do not have to be the same color. A fielder who chooses to wear a helmet (see below) is not required to wear a cap.
Including for softball players, most players use "sliding shorts" otherwise known as compression shorts for other sports like soccer, football etc. These shorts help to protect the upper thigh when sliding into a base. Other additional sliding equipment used are "sliders". These are somewhat padded shinguards that extend usually from the ankle to the knee of the wearer and wrap all the way around the leg(s). They protect the shin, calf, etc. from getting bruised or damaged while sliding into homeplate and make it easier to slide into the plate.
At the back of the uniform an Arabic numeral from 1–99 must be visible. Numbers such as 02 and 2 are considered identical. Players' names are optional.
Jewelry, excepting medic-alert-style bracelets and necklaces, cannot be worn during a game. Those must be taped to players wearing them.
All players are required to wear shoes. They may have cleats or spikes. The spikes must extend less than 0.75 inch (19 mm) away from the sole. Rounded metal spikes are illegal, as are ones made from hard plastic or other synthetic materials. High school athletes are sometimes permitteded to wear metal cleats.
Many recreational leagues prohibit the use of metal cleats or spikes to reduce the possible severity of injuries when a runner slides feet-first into a fielder. At all youth (under 15) levels, in co-ed (the official terminology for mixed teams) slow pitch, and in modified pitch, metal spikes are not allowed.
First photo of a Softball team, Chicago, 1897
Indoor baseball player, 1907
The first version of softball was invented in Chicago, Illinois on Thanksgiving Day, 1887 by George Hancock as a winter version of baseball. It was intended to be a way for baseball players to keep in practice during the winter. At the time, the sport was called "Indoor Baseball".[2]
Yale and Harvard alumni had gathered at the Farragut Boat Club in Chicago to hear the score of the annual football game. When the score was announced and bets were paid, a Yale alumnus threw a boxing glove at a Harvard supporter. The other person grabbed a stick and swung at it. Hancock called "Play ball!" and the game began. Hancock took a boxing glove and tied it into a ball. A broom handle was used as a bat.[3] The first softball game ended with a score of 44-40.[4] The ball, being soft, was fielded barehanded rather than with gloves like those which had been introduced to baseball in 1882. Hancock developed a ball and an undersized bat in the next week. The Farragut Club soon set rules for the game, which spread quickly to outsiders. The game, under the name of "Indoor-Outdoor", was moved outside next year, and the first rules were published in 1889.[2]
In 1895 Lewis Rober, Sr. of Minneapolis organized outdoor games as exercise for firefighters; this game was known as kitten ball (after the first team to play it), pumpkin ball, or diamond ball.[3] Rober's version of the game used a ball 12 inches (305 mm) in circumference, rather than the 16-inch (406 mm) ball used by the Farragut club, and eventually the Minneapolis ball prevailed, although the dimensions of the Minneapolis diamond were passed over in favor of the dimensions of the Chicago one. Rober may not have been familiar with the Farragut Club rules. The first softball league outside the United States was organized in Toronto in 1897.
The name "softball" dates back to 1926. The name was coined by Walter Hakanson of the YMCA at a meeting of the National Recreation Congress.[5] (In addition to "indoor baseball", "kitten ball", and "diamond ball", names for the game included "mush ball", "pumpkin ball,"[3] and "cabbage ball".) The name softball had spread across the United States by 1930. By the 1930s, similar sports with different rules and names were being played all over the United States and Canada. The formation of the Joint Rules Committee on Softball in 1934 standardized the rules and naming throughout the United States.
Sixteen-inch softball, also sometimes referred to as "mush ball" or "super-slow pitch", is a direct descendant of Hancock's original game. Defensive players are not allowed to wear fielding gloves; however, a 16-inch softball is actually soft, and can be fielded safely with bare hands. Sixteen-inch softball is played extensively in Chicago and New Orleans. In New Orleans, sixteen-inch softball is called "Cabbage Ball" and is a popular team sport in area elementary and high schools.
By the 1940s, fast pitching began to dominate the game. Although slow pitch was present at the 1933 World's Fair, the main course of action taken was to lengthen the pitching distance. Slow pitch achieved formal recognition in 1953 when it was added to the program of the Amateur Softball Association, and within a decade had surpassed fast pitch in popularity.
Softball was introduced to the United Kingdom in 1972 when the movie A Touch of Class was being filmed in London.The first British women's softball league was established in 1983.
In 1977, the American Professional Slow Pitch League (APSPL) became the first of three men's professional softball leagues to play between 1977 and 1982. The Detroit Caesars were the first team to win a professional softball World Series.
In 1991, women's fast-pitch softball was selected to debut at the 1996 Summer Olympics.The 1996 Olympics also marked a key era in the introduction of technology in softball; the IOC funded a landmark biomechanical study on pitching during the games.
In 2002, sixteen-inch slow pitch was written out of the ISF official rules, although it is still played extensively in the United States under Amateur Softball Association of America, or ASA rules.
The 117th meeting of the International Olympic Committee, held in Singapore in July 2005, voted to drop softball and baseball as Olympic sports for the 2012 Summer Olympic Games
The field
Diagram of a softball diamond.
Picture of a softball field
The playing field is divided into fair territory and foul territory. Fair territory is further divided into the infield, and the outfield, and the territory beyond the outfield fence.
The field is defined by foul lines that meet at a right angle at home plate. The minimum length of the baselines varies classification of play (see below for official measurements). A fence running between the baselines defines the limits of the field; this fence is equidistant from home plate at all points.
Behind home plate is a backstop. It must be between 25 and 30 feet (7.62 and 9.14 meters) behind home plate depending on the type of division that is playing.
Home Plate is one corner of a diamond with bases at each corner. The bases other than home plate are 15 in (38 cm) square, of canvas or a similar material, and not more than 5 in (13 cm) thick. The bases are usually securely fastened to the ground. The bases are numbered counter clockwise as first base, second base, and third base. Often, but not always, outside first base (that is, in foul territory) and adjacent and connected to it there is a contrast-colored "double base" or "safety base". It is intended to prevent collisions between the first baseman and the runner. The runner runs for the foul portion of the double base after hitting the ball while the fielding team tries to throw the ball to the regular first base before the runner reaches the safety base. However, not all softball diamonds have these safety bases and they are much more common in women's softball than in men's. The double base is required in ISF championships.
The infield consists of the diamond and the adjacent space in which the infielders (see below) normally play. The outfield is the remaining space between the baselines and between the outfield fence and the infield. The infield is usually "skinned" (dirt), while the outfield has grass in regulation competitions.
Near the center of the diamond is the pitching plate. In fast pitch, a skinned circle 16 feet (4.88 meters) in diameter known as the pitching circle is around the pitching plate.
A field is officially supposed to have a warning track between 15 and 12 feet (5 and 4 meters) from the outfield fence. However, if the game is being played on a field larger than required, no warning track is required before the temporary outfield fencing.
Located in foul territory outside both baselines are two Coach's Boxes. Each box is behind a line 15 feet (5 meters) long located 12 feet (3 meters) from each baseline.
Official baseline dimensions
| Fast Pitch Baselines | Slow Pitch Baselines | Wheelchair Baselines |
|---|---|---|
| 60 feet (18.29 m) | 60 feet (18.29 m) or 65 feet (19.81 m) or more depending on the association and level of play | 50 feet (15.24 m) |
Fast pitch pitching distances
| College and Adult | Under 18 | Under 15 | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Female | Male | Female | Male | Female | Male |
| 43 feet (13.11 m) | 46 feet (14.02 m) | 40 feet (12.19 m) or 35 feet (10.67 m) | 46 feet (14.02 m) | 40 feet (12.19 m) or 35 feet (10.67 m) | 46 feet (14.02 m) |
Slow pitch pitching distances
| Adult | Under 18 | Under 15 | Wheelchair | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Female | Male | Female | Male | Coed | |||
| 50 feet (15.24 m) | 50 feet (15.24 m) | 50 feet (15.24 m) | 46 feet (14.02 m) | 50 feet (15.24 m) | 28 feet (8.53 m) | ||
Equipment
Equipment required in softball includes a ball, a bat, gloves, uniforms and protective gear, including helmets for the offensive team and a helmet, shin guards, and chest protector for the defensive catcher.
Ball
Despite the sport's name, softballs are not especially soft. The size of the ball varies according to the classification of play; the permitted circumferences in international play are 12±0.125 in (30.5±0.3 cm), weight between 6.25 oz (178 g) and 7.0 oz (198.4 g) in fast pitch; 11±0.125 in (29.7±0.3 cm), weight between 5.875 oz (166.5 g) and 6.125 oz (173.6 g) in slow pitch. A 12-inch circumference ball is generally used in slow pitch. Some balls have a raised seam, and others do not. The ball is most often covered in white or yellow leather in two pieces roughly the shape of a figure-8 and sewn together with red thread, although other coverings are permitted. The core of the ball may be made of long fiber kapok, or a mixture of cork and rubber, or a polyurethane mixture, or another approved material.
In 2002, high-visibility yellow "optic" covering, long-used for restricted flight balls in co-ed recreational leagues, became standard for competitive play. Yellow is the color of official NCAA and NAIA softballs. Yellow softballs are fast becoming the standard for all levels of play for girls' and women's play in particular. White balls are also allowed, but are much more common in slow pitch than in fast pitch.
In Chicago, where softball was invented, it remains traditional to play with a ball 16 inches in circumference. This larger ball is generally softer (sometimes called a mush ball). When using a 16-inch ball, the fielders do not wear gloves or mitts. A 16-inch ball is also used for wheelchair softball.
Bat
The bat used by the batter is made of metal, wood or composite materials (carbon fiber, etc.). Sizes may vary. In fast pitch softball, wooden bats are not allowed.
Gloves
All defensive players wear fielding gloves, made of leather or similar material. Gloves have webbing between the thumb and forefinger, known as the "pocket". The first baseman and the catcher may wear mitts; mitts are distinguished from gloves in that they have extra padding, and no fingers. In 2007, ASA and other organizations revised their rules regarding gloves and mitts, allowing any player to use a glove or mitt. No part of the glove is allowed to be the same color as that of the ball, including that of its seams. Gloves used in softball are generally larger than the ones used in baseball.
Uniform
Each team wears distinctive uniforms. The uniform includes a cap, visor, a shirt, an undershirt, tight sliding undershorts, socks, and shorts or pants; these are the components for which standards are set.
Caps must be alike and are mandatory for male players (this is not true anymore)[citation needed]. Caps, visors, and headbands are optional for female players, and do not have to be the same color. A fielder who chooses to wear a helmet (see below) is not required to wear a cap.
Including for softball players, most players use "sliding shorts" otherwise known as compression shorts for other sports like soccer, football etc. These shorts help to protect the upper thigh when sliding into a base. Other additional sliding equipment used are "sliders". These are somewhat padded shinguards that extend usually from the ankle to the knee of the wearer and wrap all the way around the leg(s). They protect the shin, calf, etc. from getting bruised or damaged while sliding into homeplate and make it easier to slide into the plate.
At the back of the uniform an Arabic numeral from 1–99 must be visible. Numbers such as 02 and 2 are considered identical. Players' names are optional.
Jewelry, excepting medic-alert-style bracelets and necklaces, cannot be worn during a game. Those must be taped to players wearing them.
All players are required to wear shoes. They may have cleats or spikes. The spikes must extend less than 0.75 inch (19 mm) away from the sole. Rounded metal spikes are illegal, as are ones made from hard plastic or other synthetic materials. High school athletes are sometimes permitteded to wear metal cleats.
Many recreational leagues prohibit the use of metal cleats or spikes to reduce the possible severity of injuries when a runner slides feet-first into a fielder. At all youth (under 15) levels, in co-ed (the official terminology for mixed teams) slow pitch, and in modified pitch, metal spikes are not allowed.
RUGBY
A ball-game resembling rugby football was a game played by ancient Greeks called episkuros In Wales such a sport is called cnapan or "criapan," and has medieval roots. The old Irish predecessor of rugby may be caid. The Cornish called it "hurling to goals" which dates back to the bronze age, the West country called it "hurling over country" (neither should to be confused with Gaelic hurling in which the ball is hit with a stick called a hurley or hurl, not carried), East Anglians "Campball", the French "La Soule" or "Chole" (a rough-and-tumble cross-country game). English villages were certainly playing games of 'fute ball' during the 1100s. English boarding schools would certainly have developed their own variants of this game as soon as they were established - the Eton Wall Game being one example.
The invention of 'Rugby' was therefore not the act of playing early forms of the game at Rugby School or elsewhere but rather the events which led up to its codification.
The game of football which was played at Rugby School between 1750 and 1859 permitted handling of the ball, but no-one was allowed to run with it in their hands towards the opposition's goal. There was no fixed limit to the number of players per side and sometimes there were hundreds taking part in a kind of enormous rolling maul. The innovation of running with the ball was introduced some time between 1859 and 1865. William Webb Ellis has been credited with breaking the local rules by running forwards with the ball in a game in 1823. Shortly after this the Victorian mind turned to establishing written rules for the sports which had earlier just involved local agreements, and boys from Rugby School produced the first written rules for their version of the sport in 1870.
Around this time the influence of Dr Thomas Arnold, Rugby's headmaster, was beginning to be felt around all the other boarding schools, and his emphasis on sport as part of a balanced education naturally encouraged the general adoption of the Rugby rules across the country, and, ultimately, the world.
Status of rugby codes in various countries
Rugby union is both a professional and amateur game, and is dominated by first tier unions: Argentina, Australia, England, Fiji, France, Ireland, Italy, New Zealand, Scotland, South Africa, and Wales. Rugby Union is administered by the International Rugby Board (IRB). Rugby union is the national sport in New Zealand, South Africa and Wales. Second and Third tier unions include Canada, Chile, Georgia, Japan, Namibia, Portugal, Romania, Samoa, Spain, Tonga, United States and Uruguay.
Rugby league is also both a professional and amateur game, administered on a global level by the Rugby League International Federation. In addition to the countless amateur and semi-professional competitions in countries such as the United States, Russia, Lebanon and across Europe and Australasia, there are two major professional competitions worldwide—the Australasian National Rugby League and the European Super League.
Laws
Distinctive features common to both rugby codes (league and union) include the oval ball and the ban on passing the ball forward, so that players can gain ground only by running with the ball or by kicking it. As the sport of rugby league moved further away from its union counterpart, rule changes were implemented with the aim of making a faster-paced, more try-orientated game.
The main differences between the two games, besides league having teams of 13 players and union of 15, involve the tackle and its aftermath:
1. Union players contest possession following the tackle: depending on the situation, either a ruck or a maul can occur. League players may not contest possession after making a tackle: play is continued with a play-the-ball.
2. In league, if the team in possession fails to score before a set of six tackles, it surrenders possession. Union has no six-tackle rule; a team can keep the ball for an unlimited number of tackles before scoring as long as it maintains possession and does not commit an offence.
Set pieces of the union code include the scrum, where packs of opposing players push against each other for possession, and the lineout, where parallel lines of players from each team, arranged perpendicular to the touch-line (the side line) attempt to catch the ball thrown from touch (the area behind the touch-line).
In the league code, the scrum still exists, but with greatly reduced importance. Set pieces are generally started from the play-the-ball situation. Many of the rugby league positions have similar names and requirements to rugby union positions but there are no flankers in rugby league.
The invention of 'Rugby' was therefore not the act of playing early forms of the game at Rugby School or elsewhere but rather the events which led up to its codification.
The game of football which was played at Rugby School between 1750 and 1859 permitted handling of the ball, but no-one was allowed to run with it in their hands towards the opposition's goal. There was no fixed limit to the number of players per side and sometimes there were hundreds taking part in a kind of enormous rolling maul. The innovation of running with the ball was introduced some time between 1859 and 1865. William Webb Ellis has been credited with breaking the local rules by running forwards with the ball in a game in 1823. Shortly after this the Victorian mind turned to establishing written rules for the sports which had earlier just involved local agreements, and boys from Rugby School produced the first written rules for their version of the sport in 1870.
Around this time the influence of Dr Thomas Arnold, Rugby's headmaster, was beginning to be felt around all the other boarding schools, and his emphasis on sport as part of a balanced education naturally encouraged the general adoption of the Rugby rules across the country, and, ultimately, the world.
Status of rugby codes in various countries
Rugby union is both a professional and amateur game, and is dominated by first tier unions: Argentina, Australia, England, Fiji, France, Ireland, Italy, New Zealand, Scotland, South Africa, and Wales. Rugby Union is administered by the International Rugby Board (IRB). Rugby union is the national sport in New Zealand, South Africa and Wales. Second and Third tier unions include Canada, Chile, Georgia, Japan, Namibia, Portugal, Romania, Samoa, Spain, Tonga, United States and Uruguay.
Rugby league is also both a professional and amateur game, administered on a global level by the Rugby League International Federation. In addition to the countless amateur and semi-professional competitions in countries such as the United States, Russia, Lebanon and across Europe and Australasia, there are two major professional competitions worldwide—the Australasian National Rugby League and the European Super League.
Laws
Distinctive features common to both rugby codes (league and union) include the oval ball and the ban on passing the ball forward, so that players can gain ground only by running with the ball or by kicking it. As the sport of rugby league moved further away from its union counterpart, rule changes were implemented with the aim of making a faster-paced, more try-orientated game.
The main differences between the two games, besides league having teams of 13 players and union of 15, involve the tackle and its aftermath:
1. Union players contest possession following the tackle: depending on the situation, either a ruck or a maul can occur. League players may not contest possession after making a tackle: play is continued with a play-the-ball.
2. In league, if the team in possession fails to score before a set of six tackles, it surrenders possession. Union has no six-tackle rule; a team can keep the ball for an unlimited number of tackles before scoring as long as it maintains possession and does not commit an offence.
Set pieces of the union code include the scrum, where packs of opposing players push against each other for possession, and the lineout, where parallel lines of players from each team, arranged perpendicular to the touch-line (the side line) attempt to catch the ball thrown from touch (the area behind the touch-line).
In the league code, the scrum still exists, but with greatly reduced importance. Set pieces are generally started from the play-the-ball situation. Many of the rugby league positions have similar names and requirements to rugby union positions but there are no flankers in rugby league.
Golf
Golf is a precision club-and-ball sport in which competing players (golfers), using many types of clubs, attempt to hit balls into eachhole on a golf course while employing the fewest number of strokes. Golf is one of the few ball games that does not require a
standardized playing area. Instead, the game is played on golf "courses", each of which features a unique design, although courses
typically consist of either nine or 18 holes. Golf is defined, in the rules of golf, as "playing a ball with a club from the teeing ground
into the hole by a stroke or successive strokes in accordance with the Rules". Golf competition is generally played for the lowest
number of strokes by an individual, known simply as stroke play, or the lowest score on the most individual holes during a complete
round by an individual or team, known as match play.
Play of the game
Every round of golf is based on playing a number of holes in a given order. A round typically consists of 18 holes that are played in the
order determined by the course layout. On a nine-hole course, a standard round consists of two successive nine-hole rounds. Playing
a hole on the golf course consists of hitting a ball from a tee on the teeing area, called a drive on longer holes, a drive is a
long-distance shot intended to move the ball a great distance down the fairway, shorter holes can be reached with clubs shorter than
the driver. Once the ball comes to rest, the golfer strikes it again with a lay-up, an approach, or a chip, until the ball reaches the green,
where he or she then putts the ball into the hole. The goal of sinking the ball in the hole in as few strokes as possible may be impeded
by hazards, such as areas of long grass called rough, bunkers, and water hazards. In most typical forms of gameplay, each player plays
his/her ball until it is holed.
Players can walk or drive in motorized carts over the course, either singly or with others, sometimes accompanied by caddies who
carry and manage the players' equipment and give them advice.
Rules and regulations
The underlying principle of the rules is fairness. As stated on the back cover of the official rule book: Play the ball as it lies, play the
course as you find it, and if you cannot do either, do what is fair.
There are strict regulations regarding the amateur status of golfers. Essentially, anybody who has ever received payment or
compensation for giving instruction or played golf for money is not considered an amateur and may not participate in competitions
limited solely to amateurs. However, amateur golfers may receive expenses which comply with strict guidelines and they may accept
non-cash prizes within the limits established by the Rules of Amateur Status.
In addition to the officially printed rules, golfers also abide by a set of guidelines called golf etiquette. Etiquette guidelines cover
matters such as safety, fairness, easiness and pace of play, and a player's obligation to contribute to the care of the course. Though
there are no penalties for breach of etiquette rules, players generally follow the rules of golf etiquette in an effort to improve
everyone's playing experience.
Penalties
Penalties are incurred in certain situations. They are counted towards a player's score as if they were extra swing(s) at the ball. Strokes
are added for rules infractions, or for hitting one's ball into an unplayable situation. A lost ball or a ball hit out of bounds result in a
penalty of one stroke and distance. (Rule 27-1) A one stroke penalty is assessed if a player's equipment causes the ball to move, or the
removal of a loose impediment causes the ball to move. (Rule 18-2) If a golfer makes a stroke at the wrong ball (Rule 19-2), or hits a
fellow golfer's ball with a putt (Rule 19-5), the player incurs a two stroke penalty. Most rule infractions lead to stroke penalties, but also
can lead to disqualification. Disqualification could be from cheating, signing for a lower score, or from rules infractions that lead to
improper play
Scoring and handicapping
Par
A hole is classified by its par; the number of strokes a skilled golfer should require to complete play of the hole.For example, a skilled
golfer expects to reach the green on a par-four hole in two strokes (This would be considered a Green in Regulation or GIR): one from
the tee (the "drive") and another, second, stroke to the green (the "approach"); and then roll the ball into the hole in two putts for par. A
golf hole is either a par-three, -four or -five, rarely -six, very rarely -seven.
The key factor for classifying the par of a hole is the distance from the tee to the green. A typical par-three hole is less than 250 yards
(225 metres) in length, with a par-four hole ranging between 251 and 475 yards (225–434 metres), and a par-five hole being longer than
475 yards (435 metres). Although uncommon par-six and even par-seven holes do exist, and can stretch well over 650 yards. The
gradient of the course (uphill or downhill) can also affect the par rating. If the tee-to-green distance on a hole is predominantly
downhill, it will play shorter than its physical length and may be given a lower par rating and the opposite is true for uphill holes. Par
ratings are also affected by factors such as the placement of hazards or the shape of the green which can sometimes affect the play
of a hole such that it requires an extra stroke to avoid playing into hazards.
Eighteen hole courses may have four par-three, ten par-four, and four par-five holes, though other combinations exist and are not less
worthy than courses of par 72. Many major championships are contested on courses playing to a par of 70, 71, or 72. In some
countries, courses are classified, in addition to the course's par, with a course classification describing the play difficulty of a course
and may be used to calculate a golfer's playing handicap for that given course
Scoring
In every form of play, the goal is to play as few strokes per round as possible. A "hole in one" (or an "ace") occurs when a golfer sinks
his ball into the cup with his first stroke (a drive from the tee). Scores for each hole can be described as follows:
| Numeric Term | Specific term | Definition |
|---|---|---|
| −4 | Condor | four strokes under par |
| −3 | Albatross | three strokes under par |
| −2 | Eagle | two strokes under par |
| −1 | Birdie | one stroke under par |
| 0 | Par | equal to par |
| +1 | Bogey | one stroke over par |
| +2 | Double Bogey | two strokes over par |
| +3 | Triple Bogey | three strokes over par |
| +4 | Quadruple Bogey | four strokes over par |
Note: Quadruple bogey is not the highest score attainable. There is no limit to the number of strokes a golfer can take per hole.
Baseball
Baseball is a bat-and-ball sport played between two teams of nine players each. The goal is to score runs by hitting a thrown ball with a bat and touching a series of four bases arranged at the corners of a ninety-foot square, or diamond. Players on one team (the batting team) take turns hitting against the pitcher of the other team (the fielding team), which tries to stop them from scoring runs by getting hitters out in any of several ways. A player on the batting team can stop at any of the bases and later advance via a teammate's hit or other means. The teams switch between batting and fielding whenever the fielding team records three outs. One turn at bat for each team constitutes an inning; nine innings make up a professional game. The team with the most runs at the end of the game wins. Evolving from older bat-and-ball games, an early form of baseball was being played in England by the mid-eighteenth century. This game and the related rounders were brought by British and Irish immigrants to North America, where the modern version of baseball developed. By the late nineteenth century, baseball was widely recognized as the national sport of the United States. Baseball on the professional, amateur, and youth levels is now popular in North America, parts of Central and South America and the Caribbean, and parts of East Asia. The game is sometimes referred to as hardball, in contrast to the derivative game of softball. In North America, professional Major League Baseball (MLB) teams are divided into the National League (NL) and American League (AL). Each league has three divisions: East, West, and Central. Every year, the champion of Major League Baseball is determined by playoffs that culminate in the World Series. Four teams make the playoffs from each league: the three regular season division winners, plus one wild card team. Baseball is the leading team sport in both Japan and Cuba, and the top level of play is similarly split between two leagues: Japan's Central League and Pacific League; Cuba's West League and East League. In the National and Central leagues, the pitcher is required to bat, per the traditional rules. In the American, Pacific, and both Cuban leagues, there is a tenth player, a designated hitter, who bats for the pitcher. Each top-level team has a farm system of one or more minor league teams. These teams allow younger players to develop as they gain on-field experience against opponents with similar levels of skill. Futsal
Futsal adalah permainan bola yang dimainkan oleh dua regu, yang masing-masing beranggotakan lima orang. Tujuannya adalah memasukkan bola ke gawang lawan, dengan memanipulasi bola dengan kaki. Selain lima pemain utama, setiap regu juga diizinkan memiliki pemain cadangan. Tidak seperti permainan sepak bola dalam ruangan lainnya, lapangan futsal dibatasi garis, bukan net atau papan.
Futsal turut juga dikenali dengan berbagai nama lain. Istilah "futsal" adalah istilah internasionalnya, berasal dari kata Spanyol atau Portugis, football dan sala.
Sejarah
Futsal diciptakan di Montevideo, Uruguay pada tahun 1930, oleh Juan Carlos Ceriani. Keunikan futsal mendapat perhatian di seluruh Amerika Selatan, terutamanya di Brasil. Ketrampilan yang dikembangkan dalam permainan ini dapat dilihat dalam gaya terkenal dunia yang diperlihatkan pemain-pemain Brasil di luar ruangan, pada lapangan berukuran biasa. Pele, bintang terkenal Brasil, contohnya, mengembangkan bakatnya di futsal. Sementara Brasil terus menjadi pusat futsal dunia, permainan ini sekarang dimainkan di bawah perlindungan Fédération Internationale de Football Association di seluruh dunia, dari Eropa hingga Amerika Tengah dan Amerika Utara serta Afrika, Asia, dan Oseania.
Pertandingan internasional pertama diadakan pada tahun 1965, Paraguay menjuarai Piala Amerika Selatan pertama. Enam perebutan Piala Amerika Selatan berikutnya diselenggarakan hingga tahun 1979, dan semua gelaran juara disapu habis Brasil. Brasil meneruskan dominasinya dengan meraih Piala Pan Amerika pertama tahun 1980 dan memenangkannya lagi pada perebutan berikutnya tahun pd 1984.
Kejuaraan Dunia Futsal pertama diadakan atas bantuan FIFUSA (sebelum anggota-anggotanya bergabung dengan FIFA pada tahun 1989) di Sao Paulo, Brasil, tahun 1982, berakhir dengan Brasil di posisi pertama. Brasil mengulangi kemenangannya di Kejuaraan Dunia kedua tahun 1985 di Spanyol, tetapi menderita kekalahan dari Paraguay dalam Kejuaraan Dunia ketiga tahun 1988 di Australia.
Pertandingan futsal internasional pertama diadakan di AS pada Desember 1985, di Universitas Negeri Sonoma di Rohnert Park, California. Futsal The Rule of The Game
Peraturan
Lapangan permainan 1. Ukuran: panjang 25-42 m x lebar 15-25 m
2. Garis batas: garis selebar 8 cm, yakni garis sentuh di sisi, garis gawang di ujung-ujung, dan garis melintang tengah lapangan; 3 m lingkaran tengah; tak ada tembok penghalang atau papan
3. Daerah penalti: busur berukuran 6 m dari setiap pos
4. Garis penalti: 6 m dari titik tengah garis gawang
5. Garis penalti kedua: 12 m dari titik tengah garis gawang
6. Zona pergantian: daerah 6 m (3 m pada setiap sisi garis tengah lapangan) pada sisi tribun dari pelemparan
7. Gawang: tinggi 2 m x lebar 3 m
8. Permukaan daerah pelemparan: halus, rata, dan tak abrasif
Bola
1. Ukuran: #4
2. Keliling: 62-64 cm
3. Berat: 390-430 gram
4. Lambungan: 55-65 cm pada pantulan pertama
5. Bahan: kulit atau bahan yang cocok lainnya (yaitu, tak berbahaya)
Jumlah pemain
1. Jumlah pemain maksimal untuk memulai pertandingan: 5, salah satunya penjaga gawang
2. Jumlah pemain minimal untuk mengakhiri pertandingan: 2
3. Jumlah pemain cadangan maksimal: 7
4. Batas jumlah pergantian pemain: tak terbatas
5. Metode pergantian: "pergantian melayang" (semua pemain kecuali penjaga gawang boleh memasuki dan meninggalkan lapangan kapan saja; pergantian penjaga gawang hanya dapat dilakukan jika bola tak sedang dimainkan dan dengan persetujuan wasit)
Perlengkapan pemain:
Kaos bernomor, celana pendek, kaus kaki, pelindung lutut, dan alas kaki bersolkan karet
Lama permainan
1. Lama: dua babak 20 menit; waktu diberhentikan ketika bola berhenti dimainkan. Waktu dapat diperpanjang untuk tendangan penalti.
2. Time-out: 1 per regu per babak; tak ada dalam waktu tambahan
3. Waktu pergantian babak: maksimal 10 menit
Futsal turut juga dikenali dengan berbagai nama lain. Istilah "futsal" adalah istilah internasionalnya, berasal dari kata Spanyol atau Portugis, football dan sala.
Sejarah
Futsal diciptakan di Montevideo, Uruguay pada tahun 1930, oleh Juan Carlos Ceriani. Keunikan futsal mendapat perhatian di seluruh Amerika Selatan, terutamanya di Brasil. Ketrampilan yang dikembangkan dalam permainan ini dapat dilihat dalam gaya terkenal dunia yang diperlihatkan pemain-pemain Brasil di luar ruangan, pada lapangan berukuran biasa. Pele, bintang terkenal Brasil, contohnya, mengembangkan bakatnya di futsal. Sementara Brasil terus menjadi pusat futsal dunia, permainan ini sekarang dimainkan di bawah perlindungan Fédération Internationale de Football Association di seluruh dunia, dari Eropa hingga Amerika Tengah dan Amerika Utara serta Afrika, Asia, dan Oseania.
Pertandingan internasional pertama diadakan pada tahun 1965, Paraguay menjuarai Piala Amerika Selatan pertama. Enam perebutan Piala Amerika Selatan berikutnya diselenggarakan hingga tahun 1979, dan semua gelaran juara disapu habis Brasil. Brasil meneruskan dominasinya dengan meraih Piala Pan Amerika pertama tahun 1980 dan memenangkannya lagi pada perebutan berikutnya tahun pd 1984.
Kejuaraan Dunia Futsal pertama diadakan atas bantuan FIFUSA (sebelum anggota-anggotanya bergabung dengan FIFA pada tahun 1989) di Sao Paulo, Brasil, tahun 1982, berakhir dengan Brasil di posisi pertama. Brasil mengulangi kemenangannya di Kejuaraan Dunia kedua tahun 1985 di Spanyol, tetapi menderita kekalahan dari Paraguay dalam Kejuaraan Dunia ketiga tahun 1988 di Australia.
Pertandingan futsal internasional pertama diadakan di AS pada Desember 1985, di Universitas Negeri Sonoma di Rohnert Park, California. Futsal The Rule of The Game
Peraturan
Lapangan permainan 1. Ukuran: panjang 25-42 m x lebar 15-25 m
2. Garis batas: garis selebar 8 cm, yakni garis sentuh di sisi, garis gawang di ujung-ujung, dan garis melintang tengah lapangan; 3 m lingkaran tengah; tak ada tembok penghalang atau papan
3. Daerah penalti: busur berukuran 6 m dari setiap pos
4. Garis penalti: 6 m dari titik tengah garis gawang
5. Garis penalti kedua: 12 m dari titik tengah garis gawang
6. Zona pergantian: daerah 6 m (3 m pada setiap sisi garis tengah lapangan) pada sisi tribun dari pelemparan
7. Gawang: tinggi 2 m x lebar 3 m
8. Permukaan daerah pelemparan: halus, rata, dan tak abrasif
Bola
1. Ukuran: #4
2. Keliling: 62-64 cm
3. Berat: 390-430 gram
4. Lambungan: 55-65 cm pada pantulan pertama
5. Bahan: kulit atau bahan yang cocok lainnya (yaitu, tak berbahaya)
Jumlah pemain
1. Jumlah pemain maksimal untuk memulai pertandingan: 5, salah satunya penjaga gawang
2. Jumlah pemain minimal untuk mengakhiri pertandingan: 2
3. Jumlah pemain cadangan maksimal: 7
4. Batas jumlah pergantian pemain: tak terbatas
5. Metode pergantian: "pergantian melayang" (semua pemain kecuali penjaga gawang boleh memasuki dan meninggalkan lapangan kapan saja; pergantian penjaga gawang hanya dapat dilakukan jika bola tak sedang dimainkan dan dengan persetujuan wasit)
Perlengkapan pemain:
Kaos bernomor, celana pendek, kaus kaki, pelindung lutut, dan alas kaki bersolkan karet
Lama permainan
1. Lama: dua babak 20 menit; waktu diberhentikan ketika bola berhenti dimainkan. Waktu dapat diperpanjang untuk tendangan penalti.
2. Time-out: 1 per regu per babak; tak ada dalam waktu tambahan
3. Waktu pergantian babak: maksimal 10 menit
VOLLEYBALL
Sejarah
Pada awal penemuannya, olahraga permainan bola voli ini diberi nama Mintonette. Olahraga Mintonette ini pertama kali ditemukan oleh seorang Instruktur pendidikan jasmani (Director of Phsycal Education) yang bernama William G. Morgan di YMCA pada tanggal 9 Februari 1895, di Holyoke, Massachusetts (Amerika Serikat).
William G. Morgan dilahirkan di Lockport, New York pada tahun 1870, dan meninggal pada tahun 1942. YMCA (Young Men’s Christian Association) merupakan sebuah organisasi yang didedikasikan untuk mengajarkan ajaran-ajaran pokok umat Kristen kepada para pemuda, seperti yang telah diajarkan oleh Yesus. Organisasi ini didirikan pada tanggal 6 Juni 1884 di London, Inggris oleh George William.
Setelah bertemu dengan James Naismith (seorang pencipta olahraga bola basket yang lahir pada tanggal 6 November 1861, dan meninggal pada tanggal 28 November 1939), Morgan menciptakan sebuah olahraga baru yang bernama Mintonette. Sama halnya dengan James Naismith, William G. Morgan juga mendedikasikan hidupnya sebagai seorang instruktur pendidikan jasmani. William G. Morgan yang juga merupakan lulusan Springfield College of YMCA, menciptakan permainan Mintonette ini empat tahun setelah diciptakannya olahraga permainan basketball oleh James Naismith. Olahraga permainan Mintonette sebenarnya merupakan sebuah permainan yang diciptakan dengan mengkombinasikan beberapa jenis permainan. Tepatnya, permainan Mintonette diciptakan dengan mengadopsi empat macam karakter olahraga permainan menjadi satu, yaitu bola basket, baseball, tenis, dan yang terakhir adalah bola tangan (handball). Pada awalnya, permainan ini diciptakan khusus bagi anggota YMCA yang sudah tidak berusia muda lagi, sehingga permainan ini-pun dibuat tidak seaktif permainan bola basket.
Perubahan nama Mintonette menjadi volleyball (bola voli) terjadi pada pada tahun 1896, pada demonstrasi pertandingan pertamanya di International YMCA Training School. Pada awal tahun 1896 tersebut, Dr. Luther Halsey Gulick (Director of the Professional Physical Education Training School sekaligus sebagai Executive Director of Department of Physical Education of the International Committee of YMCA) mengundang dan meminta Morgan untuk mendemonstrasikan permainan baru yang telah ia ciptakan di stadion kampus yang baru. Pada sebuah konferensi yang bertempat di kampus YMCA, Springfield tersebut juga dihadiri oleh seluruh instruktur pendidikan jasmani. Dalam kesempatan tersebut, Morgan membawa dua tim yang pada masing-masing tim beranggotakan lima orang.
Dalam kesempatan itu, Morgan juga menjelaskan bahwa permainan tersebut adalah permainan yang dapat dimainkan di dalam maupun di luar ruangan dengan sangat leluasa. Dan menurut penjelasannya pada saat itu, permainan ini dapat juga dimainkan oleh banyak pemain. Tidak ada batasan jumlah pemain yang menjadi standar dalam permainan tersebut. Sedangkan sasaran dari permainan ini adalah mempertahankan bola agar tetap bergerak melewati net yang tinggi, dari satu wilayah ke wilayah lain (wilayah lawan).
Lapangan permainan
[[Berkas:VolleyballCourt.png|thumb|200px|Ukuran lapangan bola voli]]
Ukuran lapangan bola voli yang umum adalah berukuran 9 meter x 18 meter.
Ukuran tinggi net putra 2.43 meter dan untuk net putri 2.24 meter.
Garis batas penyerangan untuk pemain belakang, jarak 3 meter dari garis tengah ( sejajar dengan net ).
Untuk ukuran garis tepi lapangan adalah 5 cm
Permainan ini dimainkan oleh 2 tim yang masing-masing terdiri dari 6 orang pemain dan berlomba-lomba mencapai angka 25 terlebih dahulu.
Dalam sebuah tim, terdapat 4 peran penting, yaitu Tosser (atau setter), spiker (tukang smash), libero, dan defender (pemain bertahan). Tosser atau pengumpan adalah orang yang bertugas untuk mengumpankan bola kepada rekan-rekannya dan mengatur jalannya permainan. Spiker bertugas untuk memukul bola agar jatuh di daerah pertahanan lawan. Libero adalah pemain bertahan yang bisa bebas keluar dan masuk tetapi tidak boleh mensmash bola ke seberang net. Defender adalah pemain yang bertahan untuk menerima serangan dari lawan.
Untuk bermain bola voli tidak menuntut kemampuan fisik yang tinggi, yang diperlukan hanyalah semangat untuk mau mengejar bola kemanapun jatuhnya :p. perlahan-lahan teknik yang diperlukan untuk bermain voli itu akan tumbuh dengan sendirinya.
Justru ada satu hal yang mungkin dilupakan oleh banyak orang, yaitu bahwa bermain voli juga menuntut kemampuan otak yang prima, terutama tosser. Tosser harus dapat mengatur jalannya permainan. Tosser harus memutuskan apa yang harus dia perbuat dengan bola yang dia dapat, dan semuanya itu dilakukan dalam sepersekian detik sebelum bola jatuh ke lapangan sepanjang permainan.
Jadi hanya orang bodoh yang mengatakan bahwa yang penting dalam bermain voli adalah lompatan yang tinggi, passing yang bagus, dan pukulan yang keras. Tanpa otak maupun kemauan yang cukup mustahil semua itu bisa tercapai.
Teknik Bola Voli
[sunting] Service
Service ada beberapa macam: 1 Service Atas Adalah service dengan awalan melemparkan bola ke atas seperlunya. Kemudian Server melompat untuk memukul bola dengan ayunan tangan dari atas.
2 Service Bawah Adalah service dengan awalan bola berada di tangan yang tidak memukul bola. Tangan yang memukul bola bersiap dari belakang badan untuk memukul bola dengan ayunan tangan dari bawah.
3 Service Mengapung Adalah service atas dengan awalan dan cara memukul yang hampir sama. Awalan service mengapung adalah melemparkan bola ke atas namun tidak terlalu tinggi (tidak terlalu tinggi dari kepala). Tangan yang akan memukul bola bersiap di dekat bola dengan ayunan yang sangat pendek.
yang perlu diperhatikan dalam service
* Sikap badan dan pandangan
* Lambung keatas harus sesuai dengan kebutuhan.
* Saat kapan harus memukul Bola.
Service dilakukan untuk mengawali suatu pertandingan voli
Passing
* Passing Bawah (Pukulan/pengambilan tangan kebawah)
o Sikap badan jongkok, lutut agak ditekuk.
o tangan dirapatkan, satu dengan yang lain dirapatkan.
o Gerakan tangan disesuaikan dengan keras/lemahnya kecepatan bola.
* Passing Keatas (Pukulan/pengambilan tangan keatas)
o Sikap badan jongkok, lutut agak ditekuk.
o Badan sedikit condong kemuka, siku ditekuk jari-jari terbuka membentuk lengkungan setengah bola.
o Ibu jari dan jari saling berdekatan membentuk segitiga.
o Penyentuhan pada semua jari-jari dan gerakannya meluruskan kedua tangan
Smash (spike)
Dengan membentuk serangan pukulan yang keras waktu bola berada diatas jaring, untuk dimasukkan ke daerah lawan. Untuk melakukan dengan baik perlu memperhatikan faktor-faktor berikut: awalan, tolakan, pukulan, dan pendaratan. Teknik smash Menurut Muhajir Teknik dalam permainan bola voli dapat diartikan sebagai cara memainkan bola dengan efisien dan efektif sesuai dengan peraturan permainan yang berlaku untuk mencapai suatu hasil yang optimal (2006,23). Menurut pendapat M. Mariyanto mengemukakan bahwa : “ Smash adalah suatu pukulan yang kuat dimana tangan kontak dengan bola secara penuh pada bagian atas , sehingga jalannya bola terjal dengan kecepatan yang tinggi, apabila pukulan bola lebih tinggi berada diatas net , maka bola dapat dipukul tajam ke bawah .” (2006 : 128 ) Menurut Iwan Kristianto mengemukakan bahwa , Smash adalah pukulan keras yang biasanya mematikan karena bola sulit diterima atau dikembalikan . “ (2003 : 143 ) . Spike adalah merupakan bentuk serangan yang paling banyak digunakan untuk menyerang dalam upaya memperoleh nilai suatu tim dalam permainan voli . Dari beberapa pendapat diatas dapat disimpulkan bahwa Teknik Smash atau spike adalah cara memainkan bola dengan efisien dan efektif sesuai dengan peraturan permainan untuk mencapai pukulan keras yang biasanya mematikan ke daerah lawan. Tes smash Menurut Sandika mengemukakan bahwa tes smash adalah tolok ukur untuk mengukur kemampuan smash.
Membendung (Bloking)
Dengan daya upaya di dekat jaring untuk mencoba menahan/menghalangi bola yang datang dari daerah lawan. Sikap memblok yang benar adalah:
a.Jongkok, bersiap untuk melompat.
b.Lompat dengan kedua tangan rapat dan lurus ke atas.
c.Saat mendarat hendaknya langsung menyingkir dan memberi kesempatan pada kawan satu regu untuk bergantian memblok.
Pada awal penemuannya, olahraga permainan bola voli ini diberi nama Mintonette. Olahraga Mintonette ini pertama kali ditemukan oleh seorang Instruktur pendidikan jasmani (Director of Phsycal Education) yang bernama William G. Morgan di YMCA pada tanggal 9 Februari 1895, di Holyoke, Massachusetts (Amerika Serikat).
William G. Morgan dilahirkan di Lockport, New York pada tahun 1870, dan meninggal pada tahun 1942. YMCA (Young Men’s Christian Association) merupakan sebuah organisasi yang didedikasikan untuk mengajarkan ajaran-ajaran pokok umat Kristen kepada para pemuda, seperti yang telah diajarkan oleh Yesus. Organisasi ini didirikan pada tanggal 6 Juni 1884 di London, Inggris oleh George William.
Setelah bertemu dengan James Naismith (seorang pencipta olahraga bola basket yang lahir pada tanggal 6 November 1861, dan meninggal pada tanggal 28 November 1939), Morgan menciptakan sebuah olahraga baru yang bernama Mintonette. Sama halnya dengan James Naismith, William G. Morgan juga mendedikasikan hidupnya sebagai seorang instruktur pendidikan jasmani. William G. Morgan yang juga merupakan lulusan Springfield College of YMCA, menciptakan permainan Mintonette ini empat tahun setelah diciptakannya olahraga permainan basketball oleh James Naismith. Olahraga permainan Mintonette sebenarnya merupakan sebuah permainan yang diciptakan dengan mengkombinasikan beberapa jenis permainan. Tepatnya, permainan Mintonette diciptakan dengan mengadopsi empat macam karakter olahraga permainan menjadi satu, yaitu bola basket, baseball, tenis, dan yang terakhir adalah bola tangan (handball). Pada awalnya, permainan ini diciptakan khusus bagi anggota YMCA yang sudah tidak berusia muda lagi, sehingga permainan ini-pun dibuat tidak seaktif permainan bola basket.
Perubahan nama Mintonette menjadi volleyball (bola voli) terjadi pada pada tahun 1896, pada demonstrasi pertandingan pertamanya di International YMCA Training School. Pada awal tahun 1896 tersebut, Dr. Luther Halsey Gulick (Director of the Professional Physical Education Training School sekaligus sebagai Executive Director of Department of Physical Education of the International Committee of YMCA) mengundang dan meminta Morgan untuk mendemonstrasikan permainan baru yang telah ia ciptakan di stadion kampus yang baru. Pada sebuah konferensi yang bertempat di kampus YMCA, Springfield tersebut juga dihadiri oleh seluruh instruktur pendidikan jasmani. Dalam kesempatan tersebut, Morgan membawa dua tim yang pada masing-masing tim beranggotakan lima orang.
Dalam kesempatan itu, Morgan juga menjelaskan bahwa permainan tersebut adalah permainan yang dapat dimainkan di dalam maupun di luar ruangan dengan sangat leluasa. Dan menurut penjelasannya pada saat itu, permainan ini dapat juga dimainkan oleh banyak pemain. Tidak ada batasan jumlah pemain yang menjadi standar dalam permainan tersebut. Sedangkan sasaran dari permainan ini adalah mempertahankan bola agar tetap bergerak melewati net yang tinggi, dari satu wilayah ke wilayah lain (wilayah lawan).
Lapangan permainan
[[Berkas:VolleyballCourt.png|thumb|200px|Ukuran lapangan bola voli]]
Ukuran lapangan bola voli yang umum adalah berukuran 9 meter x 18 meter.
Ukuran tinggi net putra 2.43 meter dan untuk net putri 2.24 meter.
Garis batas penyerangan untuk pemain belakang, jarak 3 meter dari garis tengah ( sejajar dengan net ).
Untuk ukuran garis tepi lapangan adalah 5 cm
Permainan ini dimainkan oleh 2 tim yang masing-masing terdiri dari 6 orang pemain dan berlomba-lomba mencapai angka 25 terlebih dahulu.
Dalam sebuah tim, terdapat 4 peran penting, yaitu Tosser (atau setter), spiker (tukang smash), libero, dan defender (pemain bertahan). Tosser atau pengumpan adalah orang yang bertugas untuk mengumpankan bola kepada rekan-rekannya dan mengatur jalannya permainan. Spiker bertugas untuk memukul bola agar jatuh di daerah pertahanan lawan. Libero adalah pemain bertahan yang bisa bebas keluar dan masuk tetapi tidak boleh mensmash bola ke seberang net. Defender adalah pemain yang bertahan untuk menerima serangan dari lawan.
Untuk bermain bola voli tidak menuntut kemampuan fisik yang tinggi, yang diperlukan hanyalah semangat untuk mau mengejar bola kemanapun jatuhnya :p. perlahan-lahan teknik yang diperlukan untuk bermain voli itu akan tumbuh dengan sendirinya.
Justru ada satu hal yang mungkin dilupakan oleh banyak orang, yaitu bahwa bermain voli juga menuntut kemampuan otak yang prima, terutama tosser. Tosser harus dapat mengatur jalannya permainan. Tosser harus memutuskan apa yang harus dia perbuat dengan bola yang dia dapat, dan semuanya itu dilakukan dalam sepersekian detik sebelum bola jatuh ke lapangan sepanjang permainan.
Jadi hanya orang bodoh yang mengatakan bahwa yang penting dalam bermain voli adalah lompatan yang tinggi, passing yang bagus, dan pukulan yang keras. Tanpa otak maupun kemauan yang cukup mustahil semua itu bisa tercapai.
Teknik Bola Voli
[sunting] Service
Service ada beberapa macam: 1 Service Atas Adalah service dengan awalan melemparkan bola ke atas seperlunya. Kemudian Server melompat untuk memukul bola dengan ayunan tangan dari atas.
2 Service Bawah Adalah service dengan awalan bola berada di tangan yang tidak memukul bola. Tangan yang memukul bola bersiap dari belakang badan untuk memukul bola dengan ayunan tangan dari bawah.
3 Service Mengapung Adalah service atas dengan awalan dan cara memukul yang hampir sama. Awalan service mengapung adalah melemparkan bola ke atas namun tidak terlalu tinggi (tidak terlalu tinggi dari kepala). Tangan yang akan memukul bola bersiap di dekat bola dengan ayunan yang sangat pendek.
yang perlu diperhatikan dalam service
* Sikap badan dan pandangan
* Lambung keatas harus sesuai dengan kebutuhan.
* Saat kapan harus memukul Bola.
Service dilakukan untuk mengawali suatu pertandingan voli
Passing
* Passing Bawah (Pukulan/pengambilan tangan kebawah)
o Sikap badan jongkok, lutut agak ditekuk.
o tangan dirapatkan, satu dengan yang lain dirapatkan.
o Gerakan tangan disesuaikan dengan keras/lemahnya kecepatan bola.
* Passing Keatas (Pukulan/pengambilan tangan keatas)
o Sikap badan jongkok, lutut agak ditekuk.
o Badan sedikit condong kemuka, siku ditekuk jari-jari terbuka membentuk lengkungan setengah bola.
o Ibu jari dan jari saling berdekatan membentuk segitiga.
o Penyentuhan pada semua jari-jari dan gerakannya meluruskan kedua tangan
Smash (spike)
Dengan membentuk serangan pukulan yang keras waktu bola berada diatas jaring, untuk dimasukkan ke daerah lawan. Untuk melakukan dengan baik perlu memperhatikan faktor-faktor berikut: awalan, tolakan, pukulan, dan pendaratan. Teknik smash Menurut Muhajir Teknik dalam permainan bola voli dapat diartikan sebagai cara memainkan bola dengan efisien dan efektif sesuai dengan peraturan permainan yang berlaku untuk mencapai suatu hasil yang optimal (2006,23). Menurut pendapat M. Mariyanto mengemukakan bahwa : “ Smash adalah suatu pukulan yang kuat dimana tangan kontak dengan bola secara penuh pada bagian atas , sehingga jalannya bola terjal dengan kecepatan yang tinggi, apabila pukulan bola lebih tinggi berada diatas net , maka bola dapat dipukul tajam ke bawah .” (2006 : 128 ) Menurut Iwan Kristianto mengemukakan bahwa , Smash adalah pukulan keras yang biasanya mematikan karena bola sulit diterima atau dikembalikan . “ (2003 : 143 ) . Spike adalah merupakan bentuk serangan yang paling banyak digunakan untuk menyerang dalam upaya memperoleh nilai suatu tim dalam permainan voli . Dari beberapa pendapat diatas dapat disimpulkan bahwa Teknik Smash atau spike adalah cara memainkan bola dengan efisien dan efektif sesuai dengan peraturan permainan untuk mencapai pukulan keras yang biasanya mematikan ke daerah lawan. Tes smash Menurut Sandika mengemukakan bahwa tes smash adalah tolok ukur untuk mengukur kemampuan smash.
Membendung (Bloking)
Dengan daya upaya di dekat jaring untuk mencoba menahan/menghalangi bola yang datang dari daerah lawan. Sikap memblok yang benar adalah:
a.Jongkok, bersiap untuk melompat.
b.Lompat dengan kedua tangan rapat dan lurus ke atas.
c.Saat mendarat hendaknya langsung menyingkir dan memberi kesempatan pada kawan satu regu untuk bergantian memblok.
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